Lecture Notes Week 2!

INTRODUCTION

20th Century saw development of mass society and explosion of broadcast media where messages from centralised sources were distributed around the world. Academic disciplines have appeared to investigate issues around C:

COMMUNICATION STUDIES
MEDIA STUDIES
CULTURAL STUDIES

At the same time a number of more job-focussed disciplines emerged:
JOURNALISM
PR
ADVERTISING
MARKETING DESIGN

In last decade, rise of computers etc has spawned new areas of investigation:
NEW MEDIA STUDIES
CYBERSTUDIES
INTERNET STUDIES
CYBERCULTURE STUDIES
WEB STUDIES

These mass of disciplines is what academic study of C has became to after a century. Began in France 100yrs ago.


1900 semiotics- Ferdinand de Saussure

Studies the role of signs as part of social life
Signs are:
· SIGNIFIER- Sign saying ‘Griffith Library’

· SIGNIFIED- Actual library

· DENOTATION- literal account. ‘bumping roads’

· CONNOTATION- draws out cultural associations. ‘sexual’

· SEMANTICS- relationship of signs with what they stand for- appreciation of words, their meanings

· SYNTACTICS- formal structural relations between signs- rules of grammer, spelling, sentence structure. They way we read and carry messages. The way we decipher the symbols of a page

· PRAGMATICS- relationship of signs to interpreters of sings- perhaps arguing meaning of a sign.


COMMUNICATION STUDIES (USA)


1920s - Bullet (Inoculation) Theory = Maximum effects

The mass media is a vehicle through which selected content could shape opinion and belief, change habits of life, actively mould behaviour and impose political systems.
Example: Movie showing singlet- next week singlet sales increase.


1930 - Application of Statistical Method

Kolmogorov systematised probability theory so small but random samples could predict large social effects. EG samples of populations eg ratings. Take small random sample of ppl to understand large social effects- the mathematics.


1940 - Minimum Effects

The resistance of US soldiers to Nazi propaganda and Lazarsfeld's studies of voting behaviour showed exposure to propaganda communicated through the mass media had only 'minimal effects' on citizens. Nazi propaganda had no effect- so maximum effects theory not true. More effect from family community connection on voting habits.


1950s - Looking for effects - connections to psychology

Ppl set out to see what nature of media effects was- looked at these areas : Advertising* Kids* Violence* Politics. Result: there were conflicting/ mixed findings as there are a range of ways to study media effects.


1960s - Marshall McLuhan

McLuhan defines media as technological extensions of the body. He frames media effects as 'hot' to 'cool' in terms of the intensity of different media on the physical senses - radio and cinema are hot because their dense information consumes the audience, telephone and television are cool with less intense information.


1970s - Mixed Effects

*George Gerbner and Larry Grosss 'cultivation hypothesis' identified the way the public's perceptions of a crime 'problem' were shaped and cultivated by the ways in which the media reported and portrayed criminal violence.

*Media set agenda for what ppl talk about. Maxwell McCombs and Donald Shaw's observations on agenda setting indicated that the rank order of issues voters nominated as important in an election closely correlated with the rank order of issues raised in the press. Eg enviro concerns arouse from mainstream media

'spiral of silence' theory suggested that presentation of viewpoints in the media produce a decrease or increase in the willingness of citizens to express those viewpoints. Eg. Ppl are validated.


1980s - Return of Maximum effects

Media v. powerful in establishing nature of debate in society



MEDIA STUDIES (UK)


Raymond Williams

How media works with culture in people’s lives. Not literary, systematic methods- CULTURAL. ‘u can study media product….but what is interesting is how media works with culture in ppl lifves’.


Stanley Cohen; Moral Panics

Media creates moral panics.


Glasgow School

Through close analysis of news programs, they revealed their ideological content. Observing closely content n use of content of news.


Stuart Hall, Birmingham School

Understood that effects of media msgs are in hands of viewer who decodes the msgs. Audience has power to decode then use.
Argued that the message intended by the producers may be read in a variety of ways by the audience: they might accept the preferred reading; negotiate their own reading by contesting the preferred message or; produce an oppositional reading by rejecting the preferred strategy.


Active Audiences

Ien Ang clains that only ‘a perspective that disp[lays sensitivity to everyday practices & experiences of actual audiences themseleves’ can supply any true insight into TV viewers.



CULTURE STUDIES (Europe)


1930s Walter Benjamin

How reproduction of posters/ paintings to reproduce moments have benefits and dangers. Eg anyone nowadays can have mona lisa- destroys integrity of art and also democratizes it.


1940s Frankfurt School

"Real life is becoming indistinguishable from the movies. The sound film, far surpassing the theatre of illusion, leaves no room for imagination or reflection on the part of the audience- hence the film forces its victims to equate it directly with reality. Trying to make sense of Hollywood.


1950s Situationists – Society of the Spectacle

Consumption of spectacles most Important part of life- eco rationale for lide where personal things most imp to society used to be regarded


1960s Habermas

Pub sphere where pub opnion forms.


1970s Louis Althusser

Louis Althusser theorised the media as Ideological State Apparatuses which, he argued, institutionally produce and reproduce "the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence" and so constrict the opportunities for uncoerced debate between those individuals.


1980s Baudrillard – Simulacra

The real was represented, now the hyperreal was simulated… this is the world that we live in.


1990s Fraser - Subaltern counterpublics

Pushed for femi in mead- to effect our lvies. Interesting contribution.




NEW WAVE & FUTURE OF THEORY

Not one sub-discipline of C is going to tell the whole story.